Corruption and Poverty a Review of Recent Literature

A Literature Review on the Definition of Corruption and Factors Affecting the Risk of Abuse ()

Abstract

To choose a set of definitions on corruption and summarize the quantitative measures of corruption, this article gives some comments on a wealth of global indicators of corruption. Based on the academic research, the factors of corruption could be mapped in three levels: macro, meso and micro. In the past, well-nigh literatures pay attention to the macro factors to report the relationship between corruption, development, civilization and politics. In the meso-level, internal system construction is the most important factors on abuse. More and more scholars tend to use the real raw data rather than the perception of information to study the corruption of a certain country or region. Micro factors research on corruption will become increasingly popular in the future.

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Liu, X. (2016) A Literature Review on the Definition of Corruption and Factors Affecting the Risk of Corruption. Open Periodical of Social Sciences, four, 171-177. doi: 10.4236/jss.2016.46019.

Received 24 May 2016; accepted 25 June 2016; published 28 June 2016

1. Introduction

The increasingly anti-corruption efforts of the Chinese Communist Party and the authorities make Chinese scholars pay much attending to the corruption. More than than 49 thousands people have been punished for an eight- point regulation in 2015, these violators were found to have been involved in 37 thousands cases during the entrada. In fact, the problem of corruption is e'er with China since the founding of the People'due south Republic. More generally, the problem can trace dorsum to ancientry coming out with the country. In past research, scholars have made abundant achievements about corruption, especially in the definition and related clinical factors on abuse.

In that location are various definitions of corruption in theory field. The virtually widely used definition is "corruption is taken to be the corruption of public office for individual do good", which has pointed out the nuclear connotation of corruption. According to different studying objects and purposes, the precise definition and measurement could distinguish betwixt different issues. This article gives a review of the factors affecting the adventure of corruption from the macro, meso and micro levels. Each factor alone affects the take chances of corruption and the influence volition non only catamenia ane way, hence the interaction among all factors was very complex. I hope the literature review would provide worthy reference and be helpful for the following academician.

ii. What Is Abuse?

2.1. Definition of Corruption

Rousseau once pointed out that the legitimacy of the national public ability comes from the people. The government is the executor of the sovereign. Its power comes from the people's trust. When the utilise of public power deviate from the original track, being driveling, corruption problems arise. It accords with the definition of "the abuse of public role for private do good". This definition is also the most widely used by foreign scholars on the concept of corruption¹. The research of corruption every bit a specific concept of public administration in China began in the 1980s and 1990s. Wang Huning and Huang Bai Lian defines corruption equally non-public use of public power (abuse and unfair exchange). Most scholars believe that corruption is the simply regime official acts of corruption of power [1] . He (2003) thinks from this concept that abuse includes the subject area of corruption, motivation (purpose), means, the way and the consequences and puts the negative corruption into the telescopic of corruption. He specially points out that a lot of abuse is hiding under the cloak of acts of abuse of power with violation of the established codes of ethics [2] .

Now Chinese and foreign bookish circles have not formed a unified definition of the "corruption". Information technology is usually defined equally the corruption of public officials in the land organs use power in the hands for bribery, corruption, extortion, fraud and other acts. But this term includes many aspects of economy, politics, culture, morality, constabulary and so on. In contempo years, the extension of abuse has connected to expand. The master body of corruption is no longer confined to the national institution. More subjects are included. For example "academic corruption" refers to the abuse in universities and enquiry institutions. The forms of abuse include not simply public officials' personal gain beliefs but also interest exchange process, such as nepotism, nonfeasance and disposal of public resources [3] .

Bussell (2015) pointed out that at that place are many ways to define abuse in particular. But no definition can be applied to all research purposes [4] . Therefore, first of all the diversity of the corruption's content should be recognized. From the research intent, the advisable concept of abuse and measurement methods are selected. This arroyo is more than adapted to the current report for the purpose to requite a definition of corruption is to practise better in scholarly studies.

two.2. Determination of Abuse

The transnational enquiry of corruption normally adopts the corruption index provided by the international database, such every bit CPI of Transparency International, WBES of World Bank Institute and Abuse Alphabetize of Intelligence Unit of measurement. Near of the alphabetize comes from a survey of people, businesses, or experts [five] . Most of these composite alphabetize, reflecting the diverse aspects of corruption, describe the full general situation of abuse from the overall and provide a great convenience for the evaluation of corruption and empirical research [six] . Simply the perception information reflects the ideas of information source on corruption and cannot guarantee that there is a link betwixt the subjective indicators and the actual level of corruption. At the aforementioned time, due to the existence of the same index in different years of the composition and weight aligning, part of the alphabetize's the fourth dimension longitudinal comparability is poor, and so there is a certain misleading in the time series assay.

For the foregoing reasons, some scholars choose practice cases instead of international database in quantitative research. In the written report of the human relationship between economic and political corruption, Ruske (2015) used individual corruption data of US Congress members provided by CREW [7] . Many scholars use the objective information to study the corruption trouble between regions and accomplished great fruits in China. On the research of government size and corruption of marketplace and local regions, Zhou and Tao (2009) use the number of corruption cases of officials of the state organs as the index to measure out the caste of corruption of the state organs [8] . Li and Zhang (2014) use the proportion of the number of local officials (people/million) accounted the number of abuse cases [ix] . Gong, Wu (2012), Qiao (2013) take the method of direct drove of abuse cases to conduct empirical research. These scholars' attempts provide a powerful reference for the more comprehensive and more objective written report of corruption in Mainland china [10] [11] .

There is no unified view regarding the decision of corruption accomplished nevertheless. In the literature of recent years, scholars unremarkably use a number of corrupt data base of operations provided by agencies to measure corruption level in order to be more than accurately. At the aforementioned fourth dimension, more and more scholars tend to start from the objective index, the real instance, a specific country and a example research of a region, because variable of each country is hundred-to-one in horizontal comparison in the international corruption research.

3. Enquiry Progress on the Related Factors of Corruption

The research of related factors of corruption is the almost important aspect in the corruption study. From the macro level, the corruption level of a land to a certain extent should determine by the country'southward economic, political and cultural level. At the aforementioned time, corruption has effect on these three parties. From the medium view, system construction and execution of the decentralization degree between the national agencies, recruitment, appointment, compensation and punishment not but affect the bud of corruption, but likewise has a significant impact on the spread of corruption. From the microscopic level, fifty-fifty when the individual is in the aforementioned or like external environs or under the aforementioned system, in that location may be significant differences in the risk of corruption due to the influence of individual gender, education, values and other factors. This section will commencement from the three levels of macro factors, meso factors and micro factors and summarizes the existing enquiry results of the related factors of abuse.

three.ane. Macro Factors Affecting the Risk of Corruption

The growing importance of corruption is based on the consensus that the development of the land needs good governance. Then in the study of corruption related factors, the relationship betwixt corruption and the development is the starting time to enter the vision's field. Mauro (1995) analyzed the corrupt information of over 70 countries in the world and concluded that corruption led to low investment and affected economic growth [12] . Treisman (2000) institute the causal relationship betwixt the economic evolution and reciprocal causation of corruption through the study of the per capita GDP [13] . Compared with the developed countries, the poor countries are more common. Bardhan (1997) pointed out that corruption had a devastating effect on the economy, while it cannot be denied that corruption has a positive significant in some areas [14] . Farooq and Shahbaz et al. (2013) shows that abuse is an obstacle to economic growth by building a fourth dimension serial model [15] . The relationship between inequality and corruption is likewise controversial. By studying the cross section data of 37 countries (using the Gini coefficient as the measurement scale), Gupta and Davoodi et al. (1998) pointed out that corruption has increased the income inequality and increased poverty [sixteen] .

Culture and politics are likewise closely related to corruption. The colonial culture and its political characteristics are the primary reasons for the serious corruption in the colonial countries. Through summary of the vague and frequent crossed boundaries during most fourth dimension in eighteenth century between the position actress allowance official recognized and economic benefits through positions in England, Pavarala and Malik (2007) try to prove that nether its rule colonialism is "unique, depending on circumstances, indirect, incomplete, and ofttimes contradictory". Colonial officials tended to use special treatment or privilege for their own benefit. But the average citizen tribute to them "modestly" [17] . Yang (2014) that excessive emphasis on consanguineous ethic tradition of "evil" caused many troubles today. Men are not what they were in times by and the general moves are getting worse and worse. He thought that excessive emphasis on "evil" of consanguineous ethic tradition fabricated abuse popular present [18] . Treisman (2000) believed that religious traditions and abuse are related [13] . This is because the religious tradition often determines the people's attitude towards the social grade. At the same time faith plays the role of monitoring and condemning the abuse of power.

3.2. Meso Factors Affecting the Risk of Corruption

The meso factors that influence the risk of corruption mainly emphasize the influence of the internal system construction on corruption. A large number of academic research results show that the system of decentralization is conducive to adjourn corruption. Pan, He and Yuan (2011) analyzed the various impact of financial decentralization on regional abuse machinery by using the provincial panel data of China during 1999 and 2008 [xix] . They pointed out that fiscal decentralization can restrain the corruption level in the region. Lord's day and Johnston (2009) analyzed the institutional differences betwixt People's republic of china and Republic of india. They idea that China delegated to the local authority, but the decision-making power is still in the hands of every level of government or state- owned enterprises. Then the local potency appeared [20] . While most of the private enterprises in India are in the hands of some noble class and some families. Political donors who seek power will utilize sponsorship to retain power.

Different scholars concur different views on whether the competition will be conducive to reducing corruption. Ades and Tella (1999) believes that competition reduces corporate profits and then there is no excess profits to bribe [21] . And so the introduction of contest is conducive to adjourn corruption. Svensson (2005) summed up the the report of Tella, Bliss, Shleifer, Vishny, Soto De and other scholars. He thought the relationship between turn a profit and corruption is very complicated and not easy to analyze [22] . Although there is a lot of bear witness show a negative correlation among abuse, deregulation, simplifying regulations and the introduction, information technology may as well open up the door to corruption. It is very difficult to find the balance betwixt the 2. Ades and Tella (1999), Treisman (2000) advocated that improving the level of opening to the outside world is conducive to reducing abuse.

When the system is constructed, it is an important means to articulate and strengthen the consciousness of main body responsibleness. Tavits (2007) proveed that the political system to affect the level of corruption through a articulate responsibleness [23] . The key supposition is that when the political system is very clear near the responsibilities of officials in the region, officials volition pursue a good policy and reduce corruption under force per unit area. Ferraz and Finan (2009) conducted a study of the human relationship between the election system and corruption based on local audit data. The results show that the possibility of resources occupation of reappointment mayor is 27% less than mayor without reappointment. This event is more obvious in those cities with low information transparency and low judicial punishment [24] . Li and Zhang (2014) made inquiry by using micro enterprise information of big sample. They got that the relationship between local officials and corruption, corporate R&D investment and corruption was significantly inverted eastward curve. That is to say, appropriate extension of the term of officials and a moderate level of corruption are conducive to the promotion of enterprise R&D investment. While long term and excessive levels of corruption will inhibit the area of corporate R&D investment [9] . Nie (2014), based on the research of corruption cases of prefectural officials and above, proved that the political cycle represented by the primary political events will take a significant impact on the anti-abuse efforts [25] . Keig, Brouthers and Marshall (2015) analyze the companies with more significant formal and informal corruption ofttimes lack the sense of social responsibility with application of institutional framework theory then verified it [26] .

How the bounty system affects the risk of abuse has also been widely discussed. Although the high bacon organisation is frequently mentioned, Sosa (2004) explained the emergence of corruption through using the expected utility model of economics and deduced that policies to increase net income from potentially corrupt institutions are not only ineffective [27] , simply may also encourage corruption. Ivanyna and Rangazas (2015) proposed a different signal of view. They used a dynamic general equilibrium model to quantify the impact of corruption and revenue enhancement evasion of the financial policy and economic growth. At the fourth dimension, they mentioned that when the public sector pay is high enough, the corruption and taxation evasion volition be eliminated. Full social welfare will be increased [28] . Gong and Wu (2012)'s results of the empirical report of Prc's bodily showed that ceremonious service pay level and corruption had no direct linear relationship. The effectiveness of salary is questionable [29] .

3.three. Micro Factors Influencing the Risk of Corruption

Scholars also try to analyze the causes and mechanisms of corruption from the main trunk of the corrupt beliefs. Dollar et al. (2001) is committed to studying the touch of gender on corruption earlier. They used International Country Risk Guide's abuse index to empirically analyze the relationship betwixt gender and abuse. [thirty] The results show that the larger the number of women in the total number of authorities officials is, the lower the caste of corruption is. Sung (2003) believed that in that location may be a reverse causality. Regions with lower levels of corruption will limit male dominated social networks and provide more possibilities for women to get jobs [31] . There may be other factors that affect both of them. Based on the information provided by the European Commission and the QoG, Stensöta, Wängnerud and Svensson (2014) studied the relationship betwixt different gender and corruption in institutional logic. They institute that the difference betwixt men and women is derived from the asymmetry experience between men and women, non their basic backdrop. Compared to the hierarchy, women in the electoral organisation play a more pregnant function in curbing corruption [32] .

Gong and Wu (2012) study the case of more than than 2800 reports. He found that bribery happens in divisional core and bureau-level cadres and they are the heads of governmental office [10] . Rosenblatt (2012) points out from the theory of social control that people in the social status of the dominant think they are in a superior position. It is more difficult to realize the corruption for them. This is because they have a strong awareness of the rights and have the want to keep the primary identify. Even if this needs to take use of others [33] . Native Chinese scholar Chen (2013) likewise embarks from the social interaction theory. He, taking the information of 31 provinces of China in 2003-2007 as the sample, institute that the rate of corruption among Chinese officials has a significant effect on the spread of the provinces [34] . The event of this kind of infection mainly comes from the demonstration event of official corruption. The focus of anti-corruption strategy may lie in the supervision and management of high-level officials.

iv. Conclusions

It can be seen from the analysis of the existing literature that foreign scholars conduct out a more detailed report from definition of corruption and related factors at the view of economics and sociology. Early corruption inquiry results mainly focus on the national and institutional level and analyze the specific impact of various aspects of the economic and political and cultural system and corruption. Research results are rich with different focus. However, there is still a great controversy on whether these factors have a applied impact on corruption. Serrae (2006), co-ordinate to the 16 factors, including the national innate endowment, colonialism, organized religion, open up level and other factors, did the research of the overall sensitivity analysis based on Farthermost-Bounds Analysis. Just 5 variables were constitute to have potent robustness with corruption. The scholars have carried on the reflection to the early on inquiry. The effectiveness of the early corruption alphabetize measurement and the international comparability of the macro data are studied and perfected [35] . From the latest research, information technology can be seen that scholars began to tend to apply the existent raw data rather than the perception of information to study the corruption of a certain country or region when they use empirical analysis method.

For the summary of domestic inquiry achievements, the existing results are summarized in the empirical research part in this paper. Before 2011, Chinese intellectuals in the study of abuse in the empirical inquiry results are less. The research methods are reasoning analysis and qualitative inquiry method. The definition of abuse, the reason, the present state of affairs, the power of anti-corruption and institutional anti-corruption are studied deeply. In contempo years, a large number of quantitative researches on the causes of corruption appear. The data sources used in the research are well-nigh provincial data. While the written report on human relationship between the private factors and the hazard of corruption, stops with a simple descriptive statistics. There are many aspects to exist studied farther. The trend of future in corruption' factors research volition become increasingly of import on meso factors and micro factors in the futurity.

Acknowledgements

This work was supported in part by the National Social Science Foundation of Cathay (Grant No. 13AZD093 and 15BGL154). The views expressed herein are those of the authors and are non necessarily those of the National Social Scientific discipline Foundation of People's republic of china.

NOTES

^aneWorld Bank: Corruption is the abuse of public ability for private do good. Similar to Corruption is the abuse of public power for private gain. This definition has been used by many scholars on the concept of abuse See, e.one thousand., Olken (2007), Bardhan (2006), Jain (2001), and Rose-Ackerman (2011).

Conflicts of Involvement

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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